METHOD OF PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE INVESTIGATION by E. Arsenio Manuel

by E. Arsenio Manuel

The most fundamental of all aspects of folktale study is the adequate collecting of the stories. For more than a century, scholars have recognized the ideal of accurate recording of tales from as many sources as possible, and in the more and more systematic researches of the past generation there has been increasing interest in promoting field work and insistence that it be skillfully and faithfully carried out. Collecting, classifying, cataloging, studying by a comparative method, and synthesizing all the results – such is now the goal of all folklorists, whether or not they have come under the direct influence of Kaarle Krohn. But all these activities depend on the first; for no valid studies can be based upon meager or untrustworthy collections. – Stith Thompson, The Folktale
(1951), p. 406.

Thompson’s observation has general application to all phases of folklore collecting and study.

A. GATHERING MATERIAL

1. By whom?

In general, any person with a familiarity with the rules and with an initial interest in native traditions, literate in the language or dialect, may indulge in this delightful and intriguing occupation.
High school or college students or teachers
Especially, students and teachers of literature and the arts
Those who have particular training  in music, choreography, etc.
People who have taken courses in anthropology, linguistics, folklore.

2. From where?

Determine first the ethnic group you are most interested in – which could be your birthplace, province, or a neighboring group.
Then check up the literature for this particular group.
Ask yourself: “What can I contribute to the literature of this group?”
Consult Manuel: Phil. Folklore Bibliog. (1965:95-124).
Communicate with local aficionados, collectors, or folklorists.
It may be necessary to do a preliminary survey of the area, before making a decision.

3. Choice of ethnic group: considerations, suggestions

Much depends on funds, time limitation, goals, command of native language.
If you have certain limitations, you may start in your own town or village or ethnic group.
Ideal groups: unacculturated or less acculturated ones.
Ideal spots, localities: away from urban centers (although one can collect Maranaw folklore, for example, even in Metropolitan Manila, if one were assiduous enough).

Urgent tasks: ethnic groups in the process of fast assimilation deserve more immediate attention.

4. Local history and setting

Study history of locality and general area from printed sources, unpublished material, if any; from old residents or citizens.
Study communications systems, past and present; missionary or adult education activities; establishment of churches; schools, etc.; proximity to organized institutions, markets, etc.; transportation system; literary and local publications, reading material of people.
What is the lingua franca?
Interview people who had gone to school, attainment.
What types of folklore they have propagated, if any.
Make inquires as to educated persons and foreigners who had resided in the locality, their occupation and activities, their contribution to traditional folklore, and so on.
Make a study of the demographic composition of population, past and present.
Endogamous or exogamous practices are pertinent, so also extent of inter-marriage.
Information on these points are essential, for one is supposed to be collecting traditional material.

5. What to gather

Aspects of folk traditions which may be the subject or object of folkloristic interest and study include;
a . Oral traditions: myths, legends, folktales, jokes, charms, verses, ·lyrics of songs, ballads, epics, nursery rhymes, riddles, proverbs, drama.
b. Action lore: sign language, games, customs, gestures, dance, pantomime, rituals, feasts and festivals.
c. Ethnoscience: belief, remedies, recipes, crafts, weather forecasts, magic.
d. Linguistic: dialect, slang, pig-latin, speech disguise, abusive speech, euphemism, curses,tongue-twisters, place-names, personal names and nicknames, folk etymology, folk similes,
metaphor, terms for calling, driving, commanding, etc.
e. Folk arts: design, ornamentation, costumes, folk songs and music, musical instruments and toys, products of industrial arts (mats, textiles, baskets, hats, pottery, etc.), plastic and graphic arts.

6. Related activity to gathering material

Make a glossary of folkloristic terms ~ the native language. Find out the equivalent’s of myth, legend, tale, epic, and so on, noting what terms the culture lacks or what English does not have, Include names of games, musical instruments, names of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures, spirits, deities; technical terms used in weaving mats, baskets, hats, .etc.
Study how the native mind classifies things, songs, dances, tales, riddles, games.
You might formulate folkloristic world view of people.

7. From whom?

Natives whose ancestors had successively lived in the locality, like old people in the village or town, or their descendants, might be good informants.
Non-literate people might turn to be better informants.
Reputed citizens in the community who may be storytellers, riddlers, singers, and so on.
Residents known for their knowledge of folk culture and traditions.
Children may tum out to be good performers at games, excellent riddle carriers, folk-singers, and so on.
Priests or missionaries may be interviewed for the stories or exempla they cite or propagate in their sermons.
Teachers and foreigners may be interviewed for the kind of stories, games, industrial arts, etc., they are teaching or propagating.
Teachers and students can be used for collecting material provided they are instructed on how to collect.
Any native born may serve as a resource person for certain types you need.

Advice: Do not underestimate the stock of any native member of the community.

8. About informants

Secure essential biographical data: birthplace, where he grew up or stayed for a year or so, age, sex, education, literateness or non-literateness in any of the languages, occupations past and present, religion, languages (primary, secondary, etc.) spoken.
Same data, if procurable, about informants ‘ parents and grandparents, and about direct or indirect sources of folktale, song, riddle, etc.
Know your informants well and cultivate their interest in your work.
Understanding his prejudices and likes, habits and traits might enable you to fully tap his stock of tales, songs.
Take pictures of your informants, especially the useful ones: Picture-taking befriends.

9. How?

Collector or student may start recalling individuals who had told him stories in the past and he may just as well start with them.
From relatives he may extend collecting activity to other members of kin group, village, or town.
When starting with a group unknown to investigator, it is advisable to contact some reputable persons (teachers, officials, native authorities) and gain their understanding and cooperation first, before endeavoring to spread out.
Such persons may become your advisers, guides, or perhaps your key informant.
As he extends his sphere, collector will be introduced in time, directly or indirectly, to good story-tellers, singers, or other informants.
By attending gatherings, socials, group work, drinking sprees, joining fishing expeditions or hunting trips, etc.
By participating in their chores, one may befriend people; these later on tell you their stock of stories, riddles, etc.
Some people, especially shy ones, become good informants upon becoming tipsy (drinking is a feature in baptism parties, marriage celebrations, barrio fiestas, etc.) and field worker should endeavor to be present in such occasions.
Among certain groups, like the lfugao, certain myths will only be recited when accompanied by ritual offerings.
This fact makes work among them an expensive affair.

Model: Remember, with a year’s stay in one area, the Harts collected literally a trunkful of folklore material.

10. Intensification of activity

Resorted to exhaust possibilities of subject.
May be done to meet special requirements of student.
Do not tire going back to your informants for more and more.
Remember that every villager is a potential informant, story-teller, singer, riddler, etc.

11. Goals of gathering

Gathering of authentic and traditional material
In the native language of informants
Exhaustive collection of all or particular types

B. RECORDING DATA

12. From mouth-to-paper method

Record myth, legend, tale; etc., phonetically in the words of informants.
Title of myth, legend, tale, etc., as known to narrator or people.
Note bodily movement while narrator is telling story, intonation patterns, vocal devices.
If story-telling should occur with listeners around, individual or group response to narrative should be noted, so also remarks, words of appreciation, corrections offered, etc.
Dramatic devices employed ‘by narrator.

13. With recording machine

Record on the tape the name of informant, title of story, other details such as place of recording, date; presence of audience.
Lighter type of battery-run tape-recorder suggested for mountainous areas.
Take note of imrecordable data (see 12 above).

14. Reading back or playing back record

If you have only pencil and paper available, read back your record to your recounteur, to fill in possible lapses (characters, incidents in the story, etc.)
If your are using a tape recorder, play back the recording just the same and for the same purpose.

15. Recording with sound-movie-camera

This requires technical training or assistance
Useful for recording dance, rituals, festivals , etc.
Done by Harold C. Conklin for the Hanunoo.

16. With a typewriter
Folktales, legends, myths, lyrics of ballads, historical narratives, etc. could be recorded with a typewriter.
Learn how to typewrite in the dark.
Since a legible record is essential, the typewriter may be found to be a more useful instrument for recording purposes.

17. With a camera

Indispensable for any kind of field work.
Two cameras might be necessary; a second for colored film.
Note name of subject, place, occasion, date. Carry in your pocket a notebook for this purpose and other matters.

18. Transcription of record

It is advisable to transcribe your notes and record soon after the recording, while your narrator or informant is still around.
You may not have a legible hand, and even if you are extra careful, you may not be able to read parts of your own writing.
So also with the tape recording. Do not trust too much your knowledge of the language, or that of your assistant. Do not bring home untranscribed reels of record.

 

C. NOTING AND STUDYING OTHER NECESSARY DATA

19. Variants

Record variants as fully as the first tale, riddle, etc.
Variation may be due to local factors, sex, lapses of memory, taboos, etc.
Study the factors involved.
Variants have a function to fulfill in determining authenticity, popularity of genre, formulating the oikotype, etc.
In recording, do not be selective. Do the sifting of material in your study room.
Read Theodore Sterne: “Some Sources of Variability in Klamath Mythology,” JAFL, v. 69, no. 271 (Jan.-Mar. 1956) 1-12.

20. Matters of textual interest and import

Inquire about the meanings of terms, archaic forms, unfamiliar phrases, non-sense lines, etc.
Identify geographical places mentioned in story, song, epic, etc.
Identify mythological figures in myth, epic, ballad, etc.
Are these associated with contemporary heroes, leaders, etc.?
Identify animals and plants and their function in story, etc. ·
Identify articles, artifacts, etc., in narrative and so on.
Common words may have special meanings in that context, etc.

21. Matters of supra-textual interest: sources 

Inquire about source of story (i.e., immediate source from whom story or song, etc. was heard), how long ago, occasion:
Story-teller may have heard it from different persons and places.
Note comments of informants about their stories, songs, etc. if remoter source of story, song, or riddle is still living, it will pay to see him to gain a deeper background.
You might determine whether the item was popular during the 19th century.
Of interest is the center of diffusion of tales, singing, epic narration, and so on.
Remember that any item taken by informant from the written or printed page ceases to be traditional for purposes of recording.
Anything inspired by dreams?

 

D. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF STORY OR MYTH TELLING, EPIC SINGING, RIDDLING

“The aspect of folklore of least concern to literary folklorists but perhaps of greatest. concern to anthropological folklorists is function. The important question is not what is folklore, nor where does folklore originate, nor how is it transmitted? The important question is what does folklore do for the folk? Why do singers sing and audiences listen when and where they do? ” – Intro. note bY Alan Dundes, in his The Study of Folklore (1965), p. 277.

22. Occasion for such activity

Particular or special and why
Part of year, month, or day when least or most favored and why
Taboos against such activity and why ‘
Certain festivals, like the fluvial festival in Pateros, are related to old beliefs and introduced Church ideas.
The pagan Tagalog living in the hills north of Montalban will not pose any riddle if there was no vigil for fear that if they did death would occur in the household.
Observe patterning of behavior

Motivations: correlation with natural phenomena, life cycle, social events

23. Actors and audience

Role of narrator, singer, etc. and his audience
How is story-teller, epic singer, etc., regarded or rewarded by the community?
Age and sex factors (e.g., in games, riddling, singing, etc.)
Is there any professional story-teller, singer?
Who compose the audience in particular performances?
Certain folk activities may need no audience at all. Why?
Preparation or training of folk artist, myth narrator, etc.
Peculiarities or patterned behavior of story-teller, etc., employment of dramatic devices.
Audience reception to myth, tale, song, etc. (clapping, laughter, crying, etc.; remarks of appreciation, derision, disapproval, sympathy for the characters in the play or story).
Such behavioral manifestations may reflect aspects of the cultural values, and should be gone into with interest.
What other activities are going on while there is a performance (such as story-telling, singing, etc:)?
During the vigil over the late Professor Beyer, the Ifugao were performing simultaneous activities at different stages.

24. Function of story telling, myth recitation, etc. in the culture

Entertainment, diversion
Educational aims
Narrated as history or true? Purposive transmission.
Psychological escape
As sanction to established beliefs, attitudes
To explain natural phenomena
Provide rationalization when beliefs or attitudes are questioned
Apply social pressure to deviating individuals
For consideration?
Others (read R.F. Barton’s “The Magical and Functional Roles of lfugao Myths,” in his The Mythology of the Ifugaos (1955).

25. Status of story telling, folk singing, etc., in the culture

Folklore categories recognized by people.
Compare these with English categories for example. In
Tagalog, for instance, what categories or types are included in alamat?
How people regard such categories? This point may be enmeshed in their belief system.
Which ones are waning and why?
Culture change. Many of the song types in Tagalog, for example, have disappeared (see E .. A. Manuel, “Tayabas Tagalog Awit Fragments from Quezon Province,” FLS, v. 17, 1958). Why?
Any rise of professionalism in the culture related to folk singing or folk performances?

E. DOCUMENTATION IN FOLKLORE STUDIES

26. Documentation in the field

For oral traditions the mere act of reducing them into writing is documentation in itself. Taping the same is another way.
For certain types of action lore (see 15a), filming may be necessary for completeness.
Taking pictures is part and parcel of documentation.
Primary sources must be in -the language of the ethnic group, in the case of oral traditions.  Meaningful studies can be made only from such primary source. All other translated sources become secondary for certain kinds of studies (humanistic, literary, linguistic, anthropological), although for purposes of typing, classification, distributional, historical reconstruction studies tales, ballads, epics, etc. in translation may be sufficient.

27. In the library and archives

Search for earlier records in libraries
Chronicles of the early missionaries and historians
Church records rilight yield something
Recent ethnographic material

28. Assistance of local collectors, folklorists

Student should know who were the workers who preceded him in that area.
Manuscript material may be in the hands of heirs or relatives of previous collectors.
If there are schools nearby, inquire from teachers because the Dept. of Education has enjoined them to collect folklore material of all sorts.

F. EVALUATING COLLECTED MATERIAL

29. Fullness of coverage
Determine how much of cultural area has been covered geographically, since you have plotted area  previously. How many other investigators had done work in the same area, noting their length of stay, command of the language, and production.
Number of informants and length of time devoted to work.

30. Quantitatively

Cultures vary, hence the number of tales, or riddles that one group has may differ from that of another.
Based on my field experience 100 tales and upwards may be a fair collection, above 200 good, and above 300 very good. For riddles 300 are fair enough, 400. good, above 500 very good. Cf.
Vanoverbergh’s coverage for Lepanto Igorot and Isneg riddles.
The number of variants may become an index of the intensiveness of the work.

31. Bibliographically

On this phase of investigation in the Philippines, the worker will have to do himself, thumbing periodicals both of national or local circulation.
UPL has an index to periodical ‘literature which might be useful; the Silliman Journal is publishing a yearly index of current periodical material.
See E. Manuel: Philippine Folklore Bibliography (1965), which is in the nature of a preliminary check-list and now out of date. However, this is now
being brought up to 1985.

G. FOLKLORICITY: How do we know that the folklore item or type is traditional?

32. Depth of vertical test 

3-generation test is applied. This is better done in the field. In inquiring into the remote source of tale, song, etc., three generations of traditional transmission might be reached. If this is not
within memory, the horizontal spread tests might be used.

33. Horizontal spread tests
5-version test. As field worker stays longer in the area, or does more intensive work, he will be recording in time versions of the tale, song, etc. Versions or variants may mean popularity, time depth, or traditional character of the tale and so on. These versions are gathered from the same culture group.
2-version test. This test is applicable when the other version comes from another ethnic group.
In making use of any version or versions, it is assumed that the same have been gathered under the rules.
There is no sense making use of non-traditional material.

34. Linguistic test

The text becomes indispensable in certain kinds of studies as indicated previously. The text is in the native language of the story-teller, singer, riddler, and so on. While it is methodologically permissible to read back the record to the story-teller, singer, etc., to check on the completeness or correctness of the tale or song, alteration of the same in some other way should not be practiced.

H. MAKING COLLECTIONS OR ARCHIVES OF FOLKLORE MATERIALS

35. By individuals

Dean S. Fansler collected mainly from students, resulting in his Filipino Popular Tales (1921; 2nd ed. 1965).
H. Otley Beyer, the most assiduous worker, collected not only from his students but also from teachers, government officials, field workers; he also copied
manuscripts and official reports of all sorts, and put them all together in his Philippine Ethnographic Series, resulting in about 150 volumes of collected material. See E.A. Manuel, ”The Beyer Collection of Original Sources in Philippine Ethnography, ” ASLPB, v.4, nos. 3-4 (Sept.-Dec. 1958), 44-66.
Carlos Ronquillo collected much material from contemporaries, friends, and enthusiasts, and published the contributions under their names in Renacimiento Filipino, 1910-1911.

36. By societies

The Finnish Literary Society, founded 1831 (see DFML, v. 1, p. 380; J. Hautala, “The Folklore Collections of the Finnish Literature Society,” Studia Fennica, v. 5, 1947, 197-202).
Brita Gjerdalen Skre, “Folk Life Research in Norway,” MWFL, v.2 (1952), 221-228.
The English Folklore Society, founded 1878. Read Allan Gomme, ”The Collection of English Folklore: Ways and Means, ” FL, v. 64 (1953), 321-333.

37. By schools or colleges

Material collected by the English department faculty may be consulted at the Univ. of the Philippines Library, though of doubtful quality and provenience. Univ. of San Carlos is mimeographing its M.A. theses, quite a number of which are on folklore.
Silliman University is conducting a folksong and folkmusic research program.
St. Mary’s School, at Sagada, has pioneered in collecting folklore and mimeographing the same for limited distribution.
Read Richard M. Dorson, “The Michigan State University Folklore Archives,” MWFL, v. 5 (Spring 1955), 51-59.

38. By government institutions 

The Irish Folklore Commission, at Dublin.
The Archive of American Folksong, Music Division,
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., founded in 1928; in 1946, Folklore Section was created to include an archives.
The Philippine experience is sad, for the municipal documents collected in 1911 and those materials sent to the National Library under the Quezon order were all destroyed during the liberation of Manila in February 1945.

 

I. SYSTEMATIZATION OF COLLECTED MATERIALS

39. Library classification

Library of Congress sytem
Dewey decimal scheme
In general, library classification systems scatter material in different areas of interest, so other systems have come about.

40. Other systems

Adopted by the Commission Internationale des Arts et Traditions Populaires, at Paris.
The Boggs scheme (see his “Folklore Classification,” FLA, v. 8, nos. 1-2 (June-Dec. 1948), 1-66.
Bonser, Wilfred and Kenneth Garside, “The Classification of the Library of the Folklore Society,” FL, v. 66 (1955), 267-281.

41. Indexing

R.S. Boggs, ” Index of Spanish Folktales“. FFC, no. 90 (1930).
The Finnish collection is one of the best indexed in the world.

42. Type classification

Aarne-Thompson, Types of the Folktale. FFC, no. 184  (1964).
Keller, John E., ”A Tentative Classification for Themes in the Comedia,” Bulletin of the Comediantes, v. 5 (1953).
Kurath, Gertrude Prokosch, “Dance: Folk and Primitive,” DFML, v. 1 (1949), 276-296.
Taylor, Archer, “A Classification of Formula Tales,” JAFL, v. 46, no. 179 (Jan.-Mar. 1933), 77-88.
Taylor, Archer, English Riddles from Oral Tradition (UC, 1951).
Taylor, Archer, Proverbial Comparisons and Similes from California (UC, 1954).

43. Motif classification

Keller, John Esten, Motif index of Mediaeval Spanish Exempla (1949).
Keller, John Esten, “Present Status of Motif Classification,” Bulletin of the Comediantes, v. 7 (1955).
Thompson, Stith, “Narrative Motif-analysis as a Folklore Method,” FFC, no. 161 (1955).
Thompson, Stith, Motif-index of Folk-literature, 2nd ed. 6 vols.

J. TRANSLATION

44. Literal translation
Preserving original syntactical arrangement of text.
Literal, but not following syntactical arrangement of text,- Examples: Otto Scheerer, The Particles of Relation of the Isinai Language (1918), in which author made use of “The Tale of the Monkey and the Turtle“; Otto Scheerer, “Batan Texts with Notes,” PJS, v. 31, no. 3 (Nov. 1926).

45. Free translation 

Limited by the idea or substance of original.
Limited to the line in case of verse (see E.A. Manuel, The Maiden of the Buhong. Sky, 1958 ed.; F.L. Jocano, “The Epic of Labaw Donggon,” PSSHR, v. 29. no. 1 (March 1964).
Limited to the stanza or paragraph (see L:Y. Yabes, The Ilocano Epic, 1935)
Idiomatic translation as practiced by the editors of the different contributors to the Folktales of the World Series edited by Richard M. Dorson, Univ. of Chicago Press.
Loose translation until collector has a better command of the language.

46. Adaptation

Problem of rewriting or retelling folktales to children
Use of folklore material for school purposes
Mutilation might result as it did happen in some of the tales rewritten by I.V. Mallari from the collection of L.L. Wilson (see their Tales from the Mountain Province Retold for Children, 1958), in which for instance the village chief is translated into datu in cultures where the datuship is unknown.
Creative writer’s use of folklore material as was done by poet Ricaredo Demetillo in his Barter in Panay (Univ. of the Philippines, 1961).

47. Translation methods and technique

Hutson, Arthur E., “The Translation of Folk Tales,” WFL, v. 8, no. 4, 342-347.
Amos, Flora Ross, Early Theories of Translation. N.Y. Columbia Univ. Press, 1920.
Bates, Charles,.Modern Translation. London: Oxford, 1936. ‘
Nida, Eugene . A., Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E .J. Brill, 1964.
Tytler, Alexander Fraser, Essay on the Principles of Translation. Everyman’s Library, n.d.
Waterman, G. Henry, “The Translation of Theological Terms in some of the Major Dialects of the Philippines, Bible Translator, v. 11, no. 1 (Jan. 1960).
Waterman, G. Henry, “Problems of Syntax in the Translation of the Scriptures in Philippine Dialects,” Bible Translator, v. 11, no. 4 (Oct. 1960).

K. PUBLICATION

Every folklorist is under heavy obligation to publish the collected material to share it with the world outside him for whatever purpose others might make use of it. In a way the folklorist is a historian, especially when he happens to be the first person to study and put on record the traditional lore of the people in which he is working. The obligation to publish becomes a bounden duty especially when the society does not have any literate members, in which condition there is a strong motivation to put the material in print.

48. Of collected material

Insist on the publication of texts
Parallel translation might be done, or some other arrangement
Footnotes become indispensable in many an instance
Glossary of terms should be appended
Type and motif indexing can be appended
Mapping the area from which the collecting was done
Pictures of story-tellers, singers, etc. might be included
Pictures of story-telling sessions, singing, festivals, games, etc.
Biographical sketches of informants should be appended.
An introduction to the collection is a desideratum, which introduction might touch many of the sociocultural contexts touched elsewhere in this guide.
What matters to include will depend on future plans of the student or collector. You might try to describe the culture with breadth, or with specificity to the collection at hand.

49. Sounds, symbolization, and typology

Once the sounds of a language has been reduced to a phonetic system and ~he texts have been so reduced in writing, see to it that your symbols are carried out into print. The question of printer’s types corresponding to your symbols is very important.
Once determined, the author should insist on seeing the proofs.

50. The matter of copyright

Should author or publisher own copyright? Specific provision on this point should appear in the contract.
What is covered by the copyright.
Problem of copyright as presented in the celebrated Santiago-Estella case.

L. SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES (aside from those already listed previously)

51. On field work and research

Barnard, Myra Lous, Alice Lindquist, Vivian Forsberg, “Cotabato Manobo Survey,” PSSHR, v. 20, no. 2 (Apr.-June 1955), 121-136.
Goldstein, Kenneth S. A Guide for Field Workers in Folklore. Hatboro, Penn.:. American Folklore Society, 1964. 199 pp.
Hart, Donn and Harriett, “Collecting Folktales in Eastern Samar, Philippines, ” SJ v . 3 (1956), 207-236.
Manuel, E. Arsenio, “The Preservation of Filipino Cultural Heritage,‘” in A.O. Elevazo (ed.). International Cooperation and National Development. (Manila: UNESCO Nat. Comm. of the Philippines, 1966), 186-190.
Royal Anthropological Inst. of Great Britain and Ireland, Notes and Queries on Anthropology. London: Routledge and Kegali Paul Ltd .. , 1964. 6th ed. 403 pp. .
Svelmoe, Gordon and Norman Abrams, “A Brief Trip among the Bukidnon Tigwa People and the Davao Salug People,” PSSHR, v. 18, no. 2 (June 1953), 141-185.

52. Some manuals, etc.

Boswell, George W. and J . Russel Reaver. Fundamentals of Folk Literature. Oosterhaut: Anthropological Pubis., 1962. 221 pp. Reviewed adversely.
Dundes, Alan (ed.), The Study of Folklore. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-hall, Inc., 1965. 481 pp.
Greenway, John, Literature Among the Primitives. Hatboro, Penn.: Folklore Associates, 1964. 346 pp.
Krappe, Alexander Haggerty, The Science of Folklore. London: Methuen & Co., 1965. (reprinted.). 344 pp.
Leach, Maria (ed.), Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend. New York: . Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1949. 2 vols.
Taylor, Archer, The Proverb. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1931. . . .
Taylor, Archer, English Riddles from English Oral Tradition. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1951.
Taylor, Archer, “An Annotated Collection of Mongolian Riddles, “ · Trans. of the American Philos. Society, v. 44, part 3 (1954).
Thompson, Stith, The Folktale New York: The Dryden Press, 1951.
Thomson Stith and W. E. Roberts, Types of Indic Oral Tales: India, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Helsinki, 1960. FFC, no. 180 .
Vansina, Jan, Oral Tradition, a Study in Historical Methodology. Chicago: Aldine Pub!. Co., 1965. 226 pp.

SOURCE: Guide for the Study of Philippine Folklore by E Arsenio Manuel, Quezon : E.R. Abueg for the Philippine Folklore Society, 1985